Published:March 16, 2020DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30628-0

 

 

As of March 12, 2020, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been confirmed in 125 048 people worldwide, carrying a mortality of approximately 3·7%,

1

 compared with a mortality rate of less than 1% from influenza. There is an urgent need for effective treatment. Current focus has been on the development of novel therapeutics, including antivirals and vaccines. Accumulating evidence suggests that a subgroup of patients with severe COVID-19 might have a cytokine storm syndrome. We recommend identification and treatment of hyperinflammation using existing, approved therapies with proven safety profiles to address the immediate need to reduce the rising mortality.

Current management of COVID-19 is supportive, and respiratory failure from acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is the leading cause of mortality.

2

 Secondary haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (sHLH) is an under-recognised, hyperinflammatory syndrome characterised by a fulminant and fatal hypercytokinaemia with multiorgan failure. In adults, sHLH is most commonly triggered by viral infections

3

 and occurs in 3·7–4·3% of sepsis cases.

4

 Cardinal features of sHLH include unremitting fever, cytopenias, and hyperferritinaemia; pulmonary involvement (including ARDS) occurs in approximately 50% of patients.

5

 A cytokine profile resembling sHLH is associated with COVID-19 disease severity, characterised by increased interleukin (IL)-2, IL-7, granulocyte-colony stimulating factor, interferon-γ inducible protein 10, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, macrophage inflammatory protein 1-α, and tumour necrosis factor-α.

6

 Predictors of fatality from a recent retrospective, multicentre study of 150 confirmed COVID-19 cases in Wuhan, China, included elevated ferritin (mean 1297·6 ng/ml in non-survivors vs 614·0 ng/ml in survivors; p<0·001) and IL-6 (p<0·0001),

2

 suggesting that mortality might be due to virally driven hyperinflammation.

As during previous pandemics (severe acute respiratory syndrome and Middle East respiratory syndrome), corticosteroids are not routinely recommended and might exacerbate COVID-19-associated lung injury.

7

 However, in hyperinflammation, immunosuppression is likely to be beneficial. Re-analysis of data from a phase 3 randomised controlled trial of IL-1 blockade (anakinra) in sepsis, showed significant survival benefit in patients with hyperinflammation, without increased adverse events.

8

 A multicentre, randomised controlled trial of tocilizumab (IL-6 receptor blockade, licensed for cytokine release syndrome), has been approved in patients with COVID-19 pneumonia and elevated IL-6 in China (ChiCTR2000029765).

9

 Janus kinase (JAK) inhibition could affect both inflammation and cellular viral entry in COVID-19.

10

All patients with severe COVID-19 should be screened for hyperinflammation using laboratory trends (eg, increasing ferritin, decreasing platelet counts, or erythrocyte sedimentation rate) and the HScore

11

 (table) to identify the subgroup of patients for whom immunosuppression could improve mortality. Therapeutic options include steroids, intravenous immunoglobulin, selective cytokine blockade (eg, anakinra or tocilizumab) and JAK inhibition.

TableHScore for secondary HLH, by clinical parameter

Number of points

Temperature
<38·4°C 0
38·4–39·4°C 33
>39·4°C 49
Organomegaly
None 0
Hepatomegaly or splenomegaly 23
Hepatomegaly and splenomegaly 38
Number of cytopenias

*

One lineage 0
Two lineages 24
Three lineages 34
Triglycerides (mmol/L)
<1·5 mmol/L 0
1·5–4·0 mmol/L 44
>4·0 mmol/L 64
Fibrinogen (g/L)
>2·5 g/L 0
≤2·5 g/L 30
Ferritin ng/ml
<2000 ng/ml 0
2000–6000 ng/ml 35
>6000 ng/ml 50
Serum aspartate aminotransferase
<30 IU/L 0
≥30 IU/L 19
Haemophagocytosis on bone marrow aspirate
No 0
Yes 35
Known immunosuppression

No 0
Yes 18

The Hscore

11

 generates a probability for the presence of secondary HLH. HScores greater than 169 are 93% sensitive and 86% specific for HLH. Note that bone marrow haemophagocytosis is not mandatory for a diagnosis of HLH. HScores can be calculated using an online HScore calculator.

11

 HLH=haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis.

* Defined as either haemoglobin concentration of 9·2 g/dL or less (≤5·71 mmol/L), a white blood cell count of 5000 white blood cells per mm3 or less, or platelet count of 110 000 platelets per mm3 or less, or all of these criteria combined.

 HIV positive or receiving longterm immunosuppressive therapy (ie, glucocorticoids, cyclosporine, azathioprine).

PM is a clinical training fellow within the Experimental Medicine Initiative to Explore New Therapies network and receives project funding unrelated to this Correspondence. PM also receives co-funding by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre. DFM chairs the NIHR and Medical Research Council funding committee for COVID-19 for therapeutics and vaccines. DFM reports personal fees from consultancy for ARDS for GlaxoSmithKline, Boehringer Ingelheim, and Bayer; in addition, his institution has received funds from grants from the UK NIHR, Wellcome Trust, Innovate UK, and others, all unrelated to this Correspondence. DFM also has a patent issued to his institution for a treatment for ARDS. DFM is a Director of Research for the Intensive Care Society and NIHR Efficacy and Mechanism Evaluation Programme Director. All other authors declare no competing interests.

References

  1. 1.
    • WHO

    Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)situation report – 52.

    https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/20200312-sitrep-52-covid-19.pdf?sfvrsn=e2bfc9c0_2

    Date: March 12, 2020

    Date accessed: March 13, 2020

    View in Article

  2. 2.
    • Ruan Q 
    • Yang K 
    • Wang W 
    • Jiang L 
    • Song J

    Clinical predictors of mortality due to COVID-19 based on an analysis of data of 150 patients from Wuhan, China.

    Intensive Care Med. 2020; (published online March 3.)

    DOI:10.1007/s00134-020-05991-x

    View in Article

  3. 3.
    • Ramos-Casals M 
    • Brito-Zeron P 
    • Lopez-Guillermo A 
    • Khamashta MA 
    • Bosch X

    Adult haemophagocytic syndrome.

    Lancet. 2014; 383: 1503-1516

    View in Article

  4. 4.
    • Karakike E 
    • Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ

    Macrophage activation-like syndrome: a distinct entity leading to early death in sepsis.

    Front Immunol. 2019; 10: 55

    View in Article

  5. 5.
    • Seguin A 
    • Galicier L 
    • Boutboul D 
    • Lemiale V 
    • Azoulay E

    Pulmonary involvement in patients with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis.

    Chest. 2016; 149: 1294-1301

    View in Article

  6. 6.
    • Huang C 
    • Wang Y 
    • Li X 
    • et al.

    Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China.

    Lancet. 2020; 395: 497-506

    View in Article

  7. 7.
    • Russell CD 
    • Millar JE 
    • Baillie JK

    Clinical evidence does not support corticosteroid treatment for 2019-nCoV lung injury.

    Lancet. 2020; 395: 473-475

    View in Article

  8. 8.
    • Shakoory B 
    • Carcillo JA 
    • Chatham WW 
    • et al.

    Interleukin-1 receptor blockade is associated with reduced mortality in sepsis patients with features of macrophage activation syndrome: reanalysis of a prior phase iii trial.

    Crit Care Med. 2016; 44: 275-281

    View in Article

  9. 9.
    • Chinese Clinical Trial Registry

    A multicenter, randomized controlled trial for the efficacy and safety of tocilizumab in the treatment of new coronavirus pneumonia (COVID-19).

    http://www.chictr.org.cn/showprojen.aspx?proj=49409

    Date: Feb 13, 2020

    Date accessed: March 6, 2020

    View in Article

  10. 10.
    • Richardson P 
    • Griffin I 
    • Tucker C 
    • et al.

    Baricitinib as potential treatment for 2019-nCoV acute respiratory disease.

    Lancet. 2020; 395: e30-e31

    View in Article

  11. 11.
    • Fardet L 
    • Galicier L 
    • Lambotte O 
    • et al.

    Development and validation of the HScore, a score for the diagnosis of reactive hemophagocytic syndrome.

    Arthritis Rheumatol. 2014; 66: 2613-2620

    View in Article

Article Info

Publication History

Published: March 16, 2020

Identification

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30628-0

Copyright

© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

ScienceDirect

Access this article on ScienceDirect

Tables

 

Related Hub

COVID-19 Resource Centre
Access the latest 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) content from across The Lancet journals as it is published.

+ Recent posts